Qualitative and Quantitative Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Qualitative and Quantitative Research - Essay Example Since quantitative research involves the heavy use of applied mathematics, such as statistical mathematics the analysis of data would be quicker analyze and would lead to a clearer understanding of the case at hand. As long as there is a manageable population size and a proper following of statistic formulation, quantitative research conclusions would be very accurate. The best reason for using qualitative research is the holistic insights given from the act of researching. Qualitative methods of research demand a descriptive understanding of the subject being studied. While quantitative methods of research use mathematics and statistics, qualitative methods of research make use of in depth analysis of secondary research approaches. This may include gathering information from books, journals or other academic works as references. Qualitative research allows researchers to come up with their own unique and justifiable conclusions based on the research they made from valid

Australian Administrative Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Australian Administrative Law - Essay Example In Australia, for example, administrative law involvement in decision-making cuts across tribunals, commissions formed by the government, and boards that act as part of law regulatory schemes in the country (Hocking & Guy, 2010). Principles of the ground review in Australian Administrative law (AAL) In the process of answering questions raised in workshop two of the Workshop Guide, it is necessary to understand the application of administrative law in Australia (Hocking & Guy, 2010). The AAL gives a work frame of the powers exercised by law agencies in Australia regarding the constitutional rights of the public (Hocking & Guy, 2010). Currently, Australia has a well-established Ombudsman system. It also promotes freedom of information to its citizens. Legislation governs the freedom of access to information by all people and their constitutional rights exist. The formation of legislations came as a way of grounds review brought about by western development (Hocking & Guy, 2010). In fu rther understanding of the principles of administrative law in Australia, events experienced in the factual scenario in workshop two are vital. In this case, the complainant is Miss Lister. It is stated in the beginning that Miss Lister is not an Australian by birth, but she is of Samkan nationality. She was using her Visa while visiting Australia (Hocking & Guy, 2010). ... The migration act states that upon reception of Australian Visa, the government must offer the applicant protection assuring him or her of security inside the country (Hocking & Guy, 2010). In case the applicant has fears of possible persecution in his or her country of origin on grounds of race, nationality or any other social and political stand, the country should offer protection. It is due to these articles in Australian law that Lister was using in her petition (Hocking & Guy, 2010). Miss Lister defends herself by claiming that if she happens to go back to her country, she would face persecution due to her Gonstranian ethnic background (Hocking & Guy, 2010). The case under which Miss Lister arguments lie was due to grounds review that took place in Australia’s law. The minister for migration, however, rejected the application citing inadequate evidence. Miss Lister used the law review act in the Australian law guide to appeal against the decision (Hocking & Guy, 2010). U nder section 32 of the law, Refugee Review Tribunal (RRT), a mandate to assist refugees, seeks justice after rejection of their applications. In respect to this provision in the law, RRT performed its duty and provided more material as evidence to support the complainant’s claims (Hocking & Guy, 2010). The evidence included documents from Samkan government and newspaper from media houses showing the extent of persecutions taking place in the country and the reasons. RRT has also powers to determine the case in favor of refugees after looking at the evidence available (Hocking & Guy, 2010). The RRT decision After looking at the evidence provided and the information from its tribunal, RRT exercised its duties to

Shoe Horn Essay Essay Example for Free

Shoe Horn Essay Essay The use of distinctively visual elements allows responders to interpret and create meaning from otherwise complex concepts. John Misto’s play ‘The Shoe Horn Sonata’ and Mike Subritzky’s poem ‘Sister’ both challenges the audience’s interpretation of the traumatic experiences of war. Through a range of distinctly visual techniques both composers help create an understanding of the power of time and the human spirit as overcoming adversity of war. As Misto’s The Shoe Horn Sonata develops, the distinctly visual stage positioning of Bridie and Sheila changes to demonstrate how the protagonists’ friendship strengthens over time. Initially Bridie and Sheila are seated at a distance for each other, demonstrating the need for them to reveal their stories as a way of overcoming the metaphorical barriers created by the war. Whilst this metaphorical barrier creates a tone of tension, during their reconciliation a contrast in characterisation occurs. The protagonists now hold hands and sit beside each other on stage. This contrasts creates a shift in tone from one of dissonance to one of hope and friendship. Misto’s use of juxtaposed distinctively visual stage positioning allows the audience to recognise that time has allowed the protagonists to resolve their relationship flaws, and therefore shows how their relationship has changed over time from one of incongruence to one of togetherness. Despite the growth in Bridie and Sheila’s relationship however distinctively visual projected imagery is used to portray that while time can help heal bad experiences, it cannot completely erase these memories. Through strategic stage positioning, Misto places Sheila beneath projected images of â€Å"Starving male prisoners† as â€Å"she does some of kind of needlework with great intensity†. By positioning such distinctive and confronting images above Sheila, Misto shows that even when doing simple tasks such as needlework, the memories of war will always remain at the fore of the protagonists’ minds. This positioning acts as a metaphor for the great impact of the war and the difficulty in erasing these memories. This helps responders understand the protagonist’s difficulties in connecting with each other and their world. Misto’s utilisation of the recurring motif of music demonstrates the poetic and admirable friendship and bond these women have created and the power this bond has had in helping them to overcome the atrocities of the war. Music imagery is also reflected in the plays title ‘Sonata’, which evokes connotations of dual courage, strength and faith, rising as one to overcome past atrocities. The ‘Sonata’ acts as a symbolic metaphor for both Bridie and Sheila, their friendship, and how that relationship has allowed them to overcome their past wartime experiences, whilst reconciling in the present. The use of such powerful and distinctive visual imagery therefore creates awareness of the atrocities of war and helps responders’ honour people who endured such atrocities. The power of the human spirit in times of war is also addressed in Mike Subritzky’s Poem Sister. Distinctively visual repetition and personification help responders understand the violence and bloodshed of the Vietnam War. Repetition of blood imagery in â€Å"Bloodied, broken bodies†¦Bloody combat gear’ alludes to the prevalence of death during the War, thereby allowing the responder to better understand the feelings of helplessness and misery faced by wounded soldiers. The strength of humanity is symbolised in the characterisation of the nurse who acts as the vehicle of hope to the dying soldiers. The nurse comes to be a visual symbol of courage and hope throughout the poem. When juxtaposed against the imagery of death and dying soldiers – â€Å"Young lives ebbed away† Subritzky creates a sense of hope for humanity in their most extreme hour. Furthermore, by hyperbolising the loss of hope in â€Å"I kept the faith when even hope was lost† th e nurse is depicted as being the guiding light and life force for soldiers close to death. By highlighting the humility and selflessness of the nurse, responders become aware of the strength of the human spirit in times of hardship and its ability to make easier very difficult situations. Much like the preceding texts Guo Jian’s painting ‘The day before I went away’ alludes to the atrocities of war, although does so in a satirical way. Through the use of distinctively visual heightened colour and flat surface painting technique, the smiling faced captures the attention of the responder to convey the illusion that the military is a joyful experience  created by Chinese propaganda. The juxtaposed characterisation between the glamorous singer in the foreground and grinning soldiers in the background who are set before a looming tank depicts that although propaganda had the initial feel of ‘inviting’ the reality of war is backgrounded and hidden. The salient feature of the image is the glamorous singer, who is toned lighter than the rest of the picture, creating a tone of innocence. She has an outstretched hand, grasping onto the responder of the poster and pulling them into the military. Through distinctively visual elements we as the r esponder become privy to the falsity of wartime propaganda. The illusion of soldiers happiness when serving their country is contrasted against the harsh reality of the dangers of war symbolised in the thank trapped within the brinks of the painting, as a symbol of their sound and government constraints from which they are unable to escape without falling into dishonour.

Source Of Errors In Language Learning Research English Language Essay

Source Of Errors In Language Learning Research English Language Essay Introduction Errors are integral part of language acquisition. The phenomenon of error has long interested SLA researchers. In a traditional second language teaching situation, they are regarded as the linguistic phenomena deviant from the language rules and standard usages, reflecting learners deficiency in language competence and acquisition device. Many teachers simply correct individual errors as they occur, with little attempt to see patterns of errors or to seek causes in anything other than learner ignorance. Presently, however, with the development of linguistics, applied linguists, psychology and other relevant subjects, peoples attitude toward errors changed greatly. Instead of being problem to be overcome or evils to be eradicated, errors are believed to be evidence of the learners stages in their target language (TL) development. It is through analyzing learner errors that errors are elevated from the statue of undesirability to that of a guide to the inner working of the language lea rning process (Ellis, 1985,p 53) In the field of SLA, there have been three influential approaches to errors with a general movement from approaches emphasizing the product, the error itself, to approaches focusing on the underlying process under which the errors are made. The analysis of error sources has been regarded as a central aspect in the study of learner errors. Researchers believe that the clearer the understanding of the sources of learners errors, the better second language teachers will be able to detect the process of L2 learning. Error Making errors is the most natural thing in the world and it is evidently attached to the human beings. But, how do we define error? There are different definitions of the word as Ellis explains learners make errors in both comprehension and production, the first being rather scantly investigated. All learners make errors which have a different name according to the group committing the error. Childrens errors have been seen as transitional forms, the native speakers ones are called slips of the tongue and the second language errors are considered unwanted forms (George 1972). We use the term error to refer to a systematic deviation from a selected norm or set of norms. According to Lennon (1991) an error is a linguistic form or combination of forms which in the same context and under similar conditions of production would, in all likelihood, not be produced by the speakers native speakers counterparts. On one hand, it was considered to be a sign of inadequacy of the teaching techniques, something negative which must be avoided, and on the other hand it was seen as a natural result of the fact that since by nature we cant avoid making errors, we should accept the reality and try to deal with them. The error-as-progress conception is based on the Chomskys idea that a child generates language through innate universal structures. So, using this symbolic code, one can have access to different pieces of knowledge not as something mechanically learned but as mentally constructed through try and error. The idea is now that the second language learners form hypotheses about the rules to be formed in the target language and then test them out against input data and modify them accordingly. There is an approach which concerns error as being the result of social-cognitive interaction. This means that the error implicitly carries a social norm as well as cognitive process. The error also carries a social and cultural component which makes it different in different societies. Cultural differences in the error Previous research has shown that cultural differences exist in the susceptibility of making fundamental attribution error: people from individualistic cultures are prone to the error while people from collectivistic cultures commit less of it (Miller, 1984). It has been found that there is a differential attention to social factors between independent peoples and interdependent peoples in both social and nonsocial contexts: Masuda and his colleagues (2004) in their cartoon figure presentation experiment showed that Japaneses judgments on the target characters facial expression are more influenced by surrounding faces than those of the Americans; whereas Masuda and Nisbett (2001) concluded from their underwater scenes animated cartoon experiment that Americans are also more likely than Japanese participants to mark references to focal objects (i.e. fish) instead of contexts (i.e. rocks and plants). These discrepancies in the salience of different factors to people from different cultu res suggest that Asians tend to attribute behavior to situation while Westerners attribute the same behavior to the actor. Consistently, Morris Peng (1994) found from their fish behavior attribution experiment that more American than Chinese participants perceive the behavior (e.g. an individual fish swimming in front of a group of fish) as internally rather than externally caused. One explanation for this difference in attribution lies in the way people of different cultural orientation perceive themselves in the environment. Particularly, Markus and Kitayama (1991) mentioned how (individualistic) Westerners tend to see themselves as independent agents and therefore prone themselves to individual objects rather than contextual details. in the second language teaching/ learning process the error has always been regarded as one of the most generally known approaches concerning the error throughout human history is to consider it a negative effect or result, even worth to be punished. According to Corder (1967): A learners errors then, provide evidence of the system of the language that he is using. They are significant in three different ways: first to the teacher, in that they tell him is he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed. Second, they provide the researchers with evidence of how language is learned or acquired. Third they are indispensible to the learner himself because he can regard the making of errors as a device used in order to learn. The sources of error might be psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, epistemic or residing in the discourse structures. Richards(1971),when trying to identify the causes of competence errors he came up with three types of errors: interference errors, which reflect the use of elements from one language to the other, intralingual errors, subdivided into errors due to overgeneralization, or to ignorance of rules restriction, which is incomplete application of the rules, or finally due to the false concept hypothesis, which demonstrate the general characteristics of rule learning and third developmental errors when the learner builds hypothesis about the target language based on limited experience. Assuming a term hierarchy of errors, Burt and Kiparasky (1974) suggest that there is a difference between global and local errors. They say: Global mistakes are those that violate rules involving the overall structure of a sentence, the relations among constituent clauses, or, in a simple sentence, the relations among major constituents. Local mistakes cause trouble in a particular constituent, or in clause of a complex sentence. They claim that global errors are more serious and rank higher in the error hierarchy than local ones, and they should be corrected prior to all others in language classrooms. Accordingly, errors in tense and aspect are regarded as local errors. They may be minor errors, for they may not cause grave breakdowns in communication. However, they are extremely common mistakes among second language learners of English and very much worth investigating since tense and aspect represent one of the most essential parts of English grammar. Corder (1967) goes a step further to propose different terminologies for these two kinds of errors and stresses that we must make a clear distinction between mistakes and errors; the former refers to non-systematic performance errors of chance circumstances, whereas the latter can be defined as the systematic errors of the learner from which we are able to reconstruct his knowledge of the language to date. In the following discussion, the analysis focuses on competence errors: There are two major approaches to analyzing errors committed by a target language learner. Contrastive Analysis (CA), Error Analysis (EA). Theoretical base of CA lies in Behaviorist Learning Theory; while the EA is closely related with the emergence of Interlanguage Theory (Ellis, 2005) Behaviorist learning theory accounts of errors: The behaviorist learning theory illustrates the TL learning is a mechanical process of habit formation. Habits entail over-learning, which ensures that learning of new habits as a result of proactive inhibition. Thus, the challenge facing the L2 learner is to overcome the interference of L1 habits. Basing on the habit formation, contrastive analysis sought to identify the features of the L2 that differed from those of the L1 so that learners could be helped to form the new habits of the L2 by practicing them intensively. Most errors made by L2 learners were the result of differences between L1 and L2 structure. (Martin 1996) Interference, the CA insists, is the result of unfamiliarity with the rules of a TL and psychological causes, such as inadequate learning (Swan, 2001). Transfer can be positive or negative: linguistic features of the L1 that are similar to those of the TL will facilitate learning (positive transfer); those aspects of the L1 that are different to the TL grammatical and phonological system will hinder SLA and cause the learner to make numerous production errors(negative transfer). Thus difference between the L1 and L2 create learning difficulty which results in errors, while the similarities between them facilitate rapid and easy learning (Ellis, 1985 cited Corder). According to behaviorist learning theory, both types of transfer are the outcome of automatic and subconscious use of old habits in new learning situations (Dulay, Burt Krashen) Rod Ellis (1985) assesses, errors, according to the theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning. By comparing the L1 with TL, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of potential errors. The idea of the error as an effect to be avoided has been especially supported by behaviorism, being considered an obstacle to language learning. To them error has been a symptom of ineffective teaching or as evidence of failure and they believed that when they occur they are to be remedied by provision of correct forms; that is to say, use of intensive drilling and over-teaching. It was also believed that interference takes place whenever there is a difference between native mother tongue and the target language. A hypothesis based on Lados suggestion in linguistic across cultures where he states in comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease all difficulties in foreign language learning (Lado, 1957) 2. Interlanguage (IL) theory accounts of errors (i) Selinker (1972) coined the term interlanguage to refer to the systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both these learners L1 and the target language. The term has come to be used with different but related meanings: To refer to the series of interlocking systems which characterize acquisition To refer to the system that is observed at a single stage of development To refer to particular L1, L2 combinations. Other terms that refer to the same basic idea are approximate system and transitional competence. (ii) Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a language, whose errors are caused by several different processes. These include: Borrowing patterns from the mother tongue. Extending patterns from the target language Expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known from Richards, Jack et al (1992). (iii)Interlanguage refers to the separateness of a second language learners system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target language. Interlanguage is neither the system of target language nor the system of the native language, but instead falls between the two; it is a system based upon the best attempt of learners to provide order and structure to the linguistic stimuli surrounding them. By gradual process of trial and error and hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer and closer approximations to the system used by native speakers of the language. (iv)Rod Ellis (2005, 54) views Error Analysis as being based on emergence of IL theory, that is known to be used to explain effectively the errors committed in SLA processes. Slinker (1972) tried to find a way to explain the errors that some students make, have nothing to do with their foreign language; for example a Spanish speaker, an Arabic speaker and a Japanese speaker might all make the same mistake in English which was not related to their respective languages. According to Slinker, L2 learners go through a process of making and testing hypotheses about the target language. They begin with knowledge about language in general, gained from their native language, and move toward the target language. Bit by bit, they readjust their mental model of the new language, improving their communicative competency in that language. Successful hypotheses become mental constructions that correspond to the rules of the new language. Brown(1993) viewed ,truly successful students make the journ ey to a high level of competency in the target language, while less successful students become fossilized somewhere along the IL continuum. For around 35 years Selinker has viewed learners errors as evidence of positive efforts by the learner to learn a new language. This view of language learning allowed for the possibilities of learners making deliberate attempts to control their own learning and, along with theories of cognitive processes in language learning. Errors are indispensable to learners since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn. A modern definition of language transfer is provided by Slinker (1992): language transfer is best thought of as a cover term for a whole class of behaviors, processes and constraints, each of which has to do with CLI (Cross Linguistic Influence), the influence and use of prior linguistic knowledge, usually but exclusively native language knowledge. Selinker (1992) pointed two highly significant con tributions that Corder made: that the errors of a learner, whether adult or child, are not random, but are in fact systematic and are not negative or interfering in any way with learning a TL but are, on the contrary, a necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypothesis. In 1994 Gass and Slinker defined errors as red flags that provide evidence of the learners knowledge of the second language. The learners developing knowledge of second language may have characteristics of the learners native language, characteristics of the second language, and some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systems. Interlanguages are systematic, but they are also dynamic, continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses about the second language.L2 learners process through an interlanguage, which is an independent knowledge of L1 and L2 system. Interlanguage Is systematic, because the learner selects the rul es systematically, learners bases plans on the rule system, in the same way as the native speaker bases on the internalized knowledge of L1 system. (iv)One of the crucial contributions of IL was its underlying assumption that the learners knowledge is integrated and systematically reorganized with previous knowledge of the native language. By a gradual process of trial-and-error or hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer approximations to the system used by the native speaker of the language. The characteristics of IL are described by many researchers as follows: Permeable, in the sense that rules that constitute the learners knowledge at any one stage are not fixed, but are open to amendment(Ellis1985:50) Dynamic, in the sense that L2 learner slowly revises their variable interim systems to accommodate new hypothesis about the TL system. Systematic, in that L2 learners IL is rule-governed, that is, the learner bases his performance plans on his existing rule system much the same way as the native speaker bases his plans on his internalized knowledge of the L1 system. The variable shape of interlanguage The concept of interlanguage has had a major impact on the field of second language acquisition, studies on interlanguage focus on the linguistic and psychological aspects of second language acquisition research. I will first outline how the interlanguage assumption developed .since the interlanguage concept is not only important for the development of the students grammar system; I will then explore how it applies to other components of language. I will also focus on the consequences of the concept for the teacher and his work in the classroom. Before the 1960s language was not considered to be a mental phenomenon. Like other forms of human behavior language is learnt by processes of habit formation. A child learns his mother tongue by imitating the sounds and patterns he hears around him. By approval or disapproval, adults reinforce the childs attempts and lead the efforts to the correct forms. Under the influence of cognitive linguists this explanation of first language acquisitio n was criticized. Language cant be verbal behavior only since children are able to produce an infinite number of utterances that have never heard before. This creativity is only possible because a child develops a system of rules. A large number of studies have shown that children actually do construct their own rule system, which develops gradually until it corresponds to the system of the adults. There is also evidence that they pass through similar stages acquiring grammatical rules. Through the influence of cognitive linguists and first language acquisition research the notion developed that second language learners, too, could be viewed as actively constructing rules from the data they encounter and that they gradually adapt these rules in the direction of the target language. However wrong and inappropriate learners own language system, they are grammatical in their own terms, since they are a product of the learners own language system. This system gradually develops toward t he rule-system of the target language. The various shapes of the learners language competence are called interlanguage. This draws to the fact that the learners language system is neither that of his mother tongue nor that of the second language, but contains elements of both. Therefore, errors need not be seen as signs of failure only, but as evidence of the learners developing system. While the behaviorist approach led to teaching methods which use drills and consider errors as signs of failure, the concept of interlanguage liberated language teaching and paved the way for communicative teaching methods. Since errors are considered a reflection of the students temporary language system and therefore a natural part of the learning process, teachers could now use teaching activities which did not call for constant supervision of the students language. Group work and pair work became suitable means for language learning. A brief review of approaches to analyses of errors Contrastive Analysis (CA) Contrastive analysis is an approach generated from behaviorist learning theory. Through CA applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first and second languages to predict errors. The basic concept behind CA was that a structural picture of any language could be constructed which might then be used in direct comparison with the structural picture of another language. Through a process of mapping one system onto another, similarities and differences could be identified. Identifying the differences would lead to a better understanding of the problems that a learner of the particular L2 would face. (Corder , 1983). CA stresses the influence of mother tongue in learning a second language in phonological, morphological, lexical and syntactic levels. It holds that L2 would be affected by L1. Here, language is taken as a set of habits and learning as the establishment of new habits, a view sprung from behaviorism, under which langu age is essentially a system of habits. In the course of language learning, L1 learning habits will be transferred into L2 learning habits. Therefore, in the case of L1 transfer into L2, if structures in the MT have their corresponding structures in the TL and L1 habits can be successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully and that would result in positive transfer. Contrastively, in the case of negative transfer or interference, certain elements of the MT have no corresponding counterparts in the TL, L1 habits would cause errors in the L2 and learners would transfer inappropriate properties of L1. CA places the environment as the predominant factor in SLA, while learners are believed to play only a passive role in accepting the impositions of the environment. We must not forget that there are numbers of errors made by language learners seem to be unrelated to the learners na tive language. According to SLA researchers non-interference errors were more pervasive in learner performance than CA were ready to recognize. Dulay and Burt (1973) studied the errors made by Spanish-speaking children learning English as an L2 and claimed that all of the learners errors had collected, 85% were developmental (non-interference), 12% were unique and only 3% were results of L1 interference. Primary tenets of CA are: Prime cause of difficulty and error in foreign language learning is interference coming from the learners native language. Difficulties are chiefly due to differences between the two languages The greater the difference s, the more acute the learning difficulties will be The results of a comparison between the two languages are needed to predict th e difficulties and errors which will occur in learning the target language What needs to be taught is discovered by comparing the languages and subtracting what is common to them. (Corder, 1981) 3. Error analysis (EA) It is defined as the study of linguistics ignorance, the investigation of what people do not know and how they attempt to cope with their ignorance, by James (2001).Error analysis was first introduced by Fries (1945) and Lado (1957) who have claimed that foreign or second language learners errors could be predicted on the basis of the differences between the learners native and second languages. They have also suggested that where the aspects of the target language are similar to those of the learners native language, learning will be easy; otherwise, it will be difficult and second language learners are expected to make errors .The field of error analysis in SLA was established in the 1970s by S. P. Corder and colleagues. A widely-available survey can be found in chapter 8 of Brown (2000). Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first an d second languages to predict errors. Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer. A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language. This is the examination of those errors committed by students in both the spoken and written medium. Corder, who has contributed enormously to EA, writes this: The study of error is part of the investigation of the process of language learning. In this respect it resembles methodologically the study of the acquisition of the mother tongue. It provides us with a picture of the linguistic development of a learner and may give us indications as the learning process. Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not. Corder(1967) made use of Chomskys the competence versus performance distinction by associating errors with failures in competence and mistakes with failures in performance. In his view, a mistake occurs as the results of processing limitations rather than lack of competence. It signifies L2 learners failure of utilizing their knowledge of a TL rule. They often seek to develop a typology of errors. Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order. They can be classified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as I angry are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context. Closely related to this is the classification according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error. Errors may also be cl assified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not. In the above example, I angry would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent. From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems. In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making. Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production (speaking and writing) and not with learner reception (listening and reading). Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable. For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned. In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage. Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching. Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology. EA emphasizes on the significance of errors in learners IL system, Brown (1994) may be, carried out directly for pedagogic purposes. Carl James (1998) viewed, EA developed out of the belief that errors indicate the learners stage of language learning and acquisition.th learner is seen as an active participant in the development of hypotheses regarding the rules of the target language just as a young child learning the first language. Errors are considered to be evidence of the learners strategy as he or she builds competence in the target language. These errors are defined as global which inhibit understanding and local which do not interfere with communication. Error analysis has been criticized as being an inefficient tool for studying the way second language learners develop their target language. It is argued that error analysis deals with the learners productive competence rather than the receptive one, and it is also an imperfect instrument for categorizing errors and explaining them. In the book Error and Interlanguage written by Pit Corder, he stated that various classifications of these error systems have been developed by error analysis researchers, three of which can be helpful for the teacher and are as follows. Pre-systematic; errors occur before the language learner has realized any system for classifying items being learned; the learner can neither correct nor explain this type of error. Systematic; errors occur after the learner has noticed a system and error consistently occurs; learner can explain but not correct the error. This classification relies on three major groups: (1) interference errors; (2) intralingual errors; (3)development errors. Interference errors are caused by the influence of the native language, in presumably those areas where the languages differ markedly. Intralingual errors originate with the structure to TL itself. The complexity of language encourages over-generalization, incomplete application of rules, and the failure to learn conditions for rule application. Development errors reflect the students attempt to make hypotheses about the language from the native language. Post-systematic; errors occur when learner is consistent in his or her recognition of systems; can explain and correct the error. The following steps are distinguished in conducting an EA: collection of a sample of learner language; identification of errors; explanation of errors; error evaluation (Ellis cited in 2005) Richards (1971) focused on the intralingual and developmental errors observed in the acquisition of English as a second language and further classified them into four categories: (i) Overgeneralization; covering instances where the learners create a deviant structure on the basis of his experience of other structure of the TL. (ii)Ignorance of the rule restriction, occurring as a result of failure to observe the restrictions or existing structures (iii) Incomplete application of rules, arising when the learners fail to fully develop a certain structure required to produce acceptable sentences (iv) False concepts hypothesized, deriving from faulty comprehension of distinctions in the TL. from the analyses of errors to the practice of error correction We know that in traditional classroom instruction is laid on accuracy, errors frequently corrected because the teacher thinks the error as a thorn in his/her flesh. Yet with the understanding of IL theory, the role of error correction has changed. Errors are considered natural products in language learning and in fact reflect the modes of learners developing system. What are the sources and causes of Errors? The following factors are identified as the source and causes of Errors Mother tongue interference Wilkins (1972) observes: When learning a foreign language an individual already knows his mother tongue, and it is this which he attempts to transfer. The transfer may prove to be justified because the structure of the two languages is similar-in that case we get positive transfer or facilitation- or may prove unjustified because the structure of the two languages are different- in that case we get negative transfer- or interference. Loan Words

Hester Prynne, of Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter, and Margare

Hester Prynne, of Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter, and Margaret Fuller, Themid-nineteenth-century Campaigner for the Rights of Women "Endowed in certain respects with the sensibility of Margaret Fuller, the great campaigner for the rights of women, Hester Prynne is as much a woman of mid-nineteenth-century American culture as she is of seventeenth-century Puritan New England." Is this an accurate assessment of Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter? Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) was an author, critic, editor and teacher who "possessed more influence on the thought of American women than any woman previous to her time" [1]. She contributed significantly to the American Renaissance in literature and to mid-nineteenth century reform movements. A brilliant and highly educated member of the Transcendentalist group, she challenged Ralph Waldo Emerson both intellectually and emotionally. Women who attended her "conversations" and many men of her time found Fuller's influence life-changing. Her major work, Woman in the Nineteenth Century published in 1845, profoundly affected the women's rights movement which had its formal beginning at Seneca Falls, New York, three years later. Hester Prynne is the protagonist of Nathaniel Hawthorne's romantic novel, The Scarlet Letter, which is set in seventeenth-century Puritan New England. As a young woman, Hester married an elderly scholar, Roger Chillingworth, who sent her ahead to America to live but never followed. While waiting for him, she had an affair with a Puritan minister named Dimmesdale, after which she gave birth to Pearl. Found guilty of adultery (through the absence of her husband and the birth of Pearl), Hester is punished by being forced to wear a scarlet lette... ...on, 1996 4 The Scarlet Letter, p.263 5 Puritanism in Early America, edited by George M. Waller, p.6 6 The Scarlet Letter, p.53 7 Ibid. p.144-5 8 Ibid. p.195 9 Ibid. p.165 10 Ibid. p.86 11 Ibid. p.263 12 Charles Capper, in An American Romantic Life. p.ix. 13 The Scarlet Letter, p.165. 14 Ibid. p.263 15 Ibid. p.263 16 An American Romantic Life, p. xi 17 The Scarlet Letter, p.94 18 Ibid. p.263 19 Ibid. p.263 20 Margaret Fuller, Julia Ward Howe, 1889 21 The Scarlet Letter, p.113 22 Ibid. p.117 Bibliography Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. History of Woman Suffrage, 1881 Nathaniel Hawthorne. The Scarlet Letter, Oxford World's Classics, 1990 The Concise Oxford Dictionary, Ninth Edition, 1996 George M. Waller, (Ed). Puritanism in Early America Charles Capper. An American Romantic Life Julia Ward Howe. Margaret Fuller. 1889

Mind and Body Essay -- science

Mind and Body Much of the intellectual history of psychology has involved the attempt to come to grips with the problem of mind and body and how they interact. While the philosophical distinction between mind and body can be traced back to the Greeks, it is due to the influential work of Renà © Descartes, (written around the 1630’s) that we owe the first systematic account of the mind/body relationship. When Descartes' friend and frequent correspondent, Marin Mersenne, wrote to him of Galileo's fate at the hands of the Inquisition, Descartes immediately suppressed his own treatise. As a result, the world's first extended essay on physiological psychology was published only well after its author's death. In this essay, he proposed a mechanism for automatic reaction in response to external events. According to his proposal, external motions affect the peripheral ends of the nerve fibrils, which in turn displace the central ends. As the central ends are displaced, the pattern of interfibrillar space is rearranged and the flow of animal spirits is thereby directed into the appropriate nerves. This is the reason he has been credited with the founding of the reflex theory. Descarte was the first to talk about mind/body interactions, and thus had a great influence in later psychologists and thinkers. He proposed that not only body can influence mind, but that mind could also affect body. Years later, the work of Nicolas Malebranche was probably the most influential provider of occasionalism. Occasionalism deals with the contradiction that if the nature of causality is such that causes and effects must have a necessary connection and be of a similar type, then mind/body interactionism is unsound. He argued that both of Descartes' substances, mind and body, are causally ineffective. His belief was that G’d is the one and only true cause. There is no influence of mind on body or of body on mind. â€Å"In order to retain the notion of God as the one true cause without sacrificing the idea of causality as operative in both the mental and the physical spheres, Benedictus de Spinoza abandoned Descartes' two-substance view in favor of what has come to be called double-aspect theory.† Double-aspect theories are based on the notion that the mental and the physical are simply different aspects of one and the same substance. Nonetheless, he agreed with De... ...ssembled a theory of moral development. The theory is based on standards of moral judgement. According to Piaget these cognitive abilities develop only as the child progresses through developmental stages. Kohlberg’s theory is too divided into stages. He proposed three major levels of moral reasoning, or development. According to Kohlberg, his three stages occur in that same order in all cultures. Development is closely related to socialization, because as we have discussed earlier, nurture, or the environment plays a major role in the development of an individual. Socialization the perceptual â€Å"process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes, and motives to conform to those regardless as desirable in a particular society.† Sexuality is closely related to socialization. Psychologists differ in their approaches towards development because the view it from distinct points of view. Piaget, for example, proposed a theory of the cognitive development of children, while Erikson proposed a theory based on the psychosocial development of individuals. Although Kohlberg based his theory on Piaget’s, his theory focused on moral reasoning.

Commercal Production Of Bovine Somatropin

Somatropin is a hormone naturally released by the Anterior Pituitary gland. Its release is mediated by the releasing hormone produced by the Hypothalamus, Growth Hormone releasing factor. Somatropin is a peptide hormone. It promotes normal body growth and lactation.Bovine Somatropin is the Somatropin produced in cattle. Since the hormone is a peptide, it is digested by peptidases in the gastrointestinal tract hence, it is not orally active. Somatropin is produced commercially using Recombinant DNA technology. The Somatropin so produced is called Recombinant bovine Somatropin (rBST). A bacteria e. g.E coli is used. The gene that codes for Somatropin is identified in the cow DNA and inserted into the DNA of E. coli. The E. coli is fermented and thus, the Somatropin is produced en masse. Through a process of isolation and purification, fairly large, commercial quantities are produced. The product may be marketed as a weekly or fortnightly injection. rBST is of immense value to the cattl e industry as it significantly increases the yield of milk produced by cattle. This is does by increasing the appetite of these cattle. Also the blood flow to the mammary gland is increased as it increases cardiac output.Also it has been reported in literature that the administration of Somatropin leads to a decrease in body fat level. This could mean healthier meats to eat. However, it produces a negative influence on the level of reproduction in animals chronically on bovine Somatropin. Also an increased risk of mastitis is also suggested in animals on which the hormone is administered. REFERENCES. 1. F. Laurent, B. Vignon and D. Coomas (1992). Influence of Bovine Somatotropin on the Composition and Manufacturing Properties of Milk. Accessed from http://www. jds. fass. org/cgi/reprint/75/8/2226. pdf 2. http://encyclopedia. farlex. c